Quantitative observation is an observation method that records visible behaviour, events, actions, objects, interactions, or conditions as structured data that can be counted, compared, and analysed numerically. Instead of writing mainly descriptive field notes, the researcher defines categories in advance and records how often, how long, when, where, or under what conditions something occurs. Researchers […]
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Visual ethnography is a qualitative research approach that studies culture, everyday life, social practice, and meaning through visual materials and ethnographic fieldwork. It may use photographs, video, drawings, maps, objects, screenshots, field notes, interviews, participant-produced images, or researcher-created visual records. Rather than treating images as decoration, visual ethnography asks what visual materials reveal about how
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Photovoice is a participatory visual research method in which participants take photographs, discuss what the images mean, and use those discussions to communicate experiences, priorities, and possible changes. The method gives participants a role in deciding what should be photographed, what should be explained, and what should be shown to others. Projects using photovoice often
Photo elicitation is a qualitative research method that uses photographs to support interviews, group discussions, diary entries, or other forms of participant reflection. Instead of asking only verbal questions, the researcher introduces images so participants can describe memories, meanings, places, relationships, routines, or experiences connected to what they see. A photograph may be taken by
Visual methods in qualitative research use images, drawings, maps, photographs, videos, objects, diagrams, or other visual materials to collect and analyse qualitative data. The visual material may be created by participants, selected by participants, produced by the researcher, or found in existing records. A photograph can open a conversation that a direct question would not
Archival data in qualitative research refers to existing records that have been preserved before the current study begins. These records may include letters, meeting minutes, reports, photographs, diaries, institutional files, websites, newsletters, forms, policy documents, oral history transcripts, or other materials kept in an archive, organisation, repository, collection, or digital record system. In qualitative research,
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Field notes in qualitative research are written records of what a researcher observes, hears, notices, thinks, and begins to interpret during fieldwork. They help turn live experience into data that can be read, coded, compared, and used in analysis. A researcher might write field notes after observing a classroom, attending a community meeting, conducting an
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Diary methods in qualitative research ask participants to record experiences, actions, thoughts, feelings, routines, or events over a defined period of time. Instead of relying only on a single interview or survey completed after the fact, diary methods collect accounts closer to the moment when things happen. A diary study might ask students to write
Open-ended survey questions are survey questions that let respondents answer in their own words instead of choosing from fixed response options. They are used when a researcher wants short written accounts, explanations, examples, reasons, or suggestions from a larger group of people. In qualitative research, open-ended survey questions can collect text-based data from participants who
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Qualitative questionnaires are questionnaires designed to collect written answers in participants’ own words. They use open questions, prompts, and short written tasks to gather descriptions, explanations, examples, views, and experiences without requiring a live interview or group discussion. Within qualitative research, questionnaires are useful when the researcher wants text-based data from several participants while keeping
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